Tuesday, April 5, 2011
Jewish communities and inhabitants in Kaifeng
Jewish life in China can be drawn back to the 7th century, when Jews arrived from Persia along the Silk Road. Archaeological evidence pointing to a Jewish presence has only come to light since European explorers and archaeologists ventured to retrace the various routes used by the Silk Road merchants.1 When, it comes to investigating the Jewish communities that existed in China, Sinologists primarily look at Kaifeng. Kaifeng was mostly scrutinized as Sinologists and archaeologists wanted to know specific details about the early Jewish settlers. Although Kaifeng was not the singular region in China where Jewish settlers had lived, this paper will present more emphasis on Kaifeng as this city contained the most prevalent and lasting Jewish community in China.
Kaifeng was visited by foreigners during Ming and Qing dynasty, where they saw Chinese Jews praying in a Synagogue, and practicing their rituals and customs. The Jewish settlers had in possession the Hebrew scripture and records of their history inscribed in stone. These foreign intellectuals wrote reports about the Jewish communities in Kaifeng which aroused interest in Europe, England and the Americas, leading to the publication of many books and articles.2 Many of these scholars argue over the interpretation of facts that have been discovered. For example, when did the first Jewish community come to China? How did they come to China and why? What was life like in Kaifeng and Shanghai? What and how were their relations with the Chinese and other ethnic groups in China? Why have they vanished in China as a race and religion, and what remains of them today in both Kaifeng and Shanghai?
All of these questions have been and still are attempted to be answered by both Western Sinologist and Chinese Scholars, and both their works combined make up a valuable contribution to the understanding of the Jewish community in China. Sometimes, the Chinese interpretation of the fact was different from the Western thinkers or sometimes the information gathered by the Chinese Scholars was a source of addition to the facts or information provided by the Western Scholars of the Chinese Jews. In this short paper, differing views on when Jews first came to China, and questions such as when did they come to Kaifeng and from where, why did they come, how did the Jews function as a community and what are the remains of them today will be discussed.
Before getting into the details, it is important to note why Western Scholars have recently been interested in investigating the Jewish population in China. Not only were there living Jews in Kaifeng but they had records carved in stone containing detailed accounts of their origins, their history and their beliefs.3 European Catholics and the Jesuits hoped to find “original materials” in the Kaifeng Scriptures, and they also believed that the scriptures and carvings have been produced before the compilation of the Talmud.3 This inspired research and speculation by Western sinologist that in turn created educated theories as to when Jews came to China, where they came from, the routes they have traveled, where they settled and how they lived. Also, much of what had been written by Jews of China was fantasy and pseudo-history. Little attention has been paid to the charting the life of the Kaifeng Jewish Community from a historical stand point.2 Books and other publications written by both Western and Chinese scholars try to provide more accurate information to some questions such as the debatable issue of the first Jewish settlement in China.
The stone records were one of the underlying reasons that aroused interest in Western Sinologist to investigate the Jewish community in China and more particularly in Kaifeng. The records contain three inscriptions in the Chinese language that offers three different dates for the time of the arrival of first Jews in China. The different arrival time carved on the stone was in the Song dynasty (960-1279), the Han dynasty (206 B.C. to 220 A.D.), and the Zhou dynasty (1056 B.C. to 256 B.C.).3 Scholars who believe that the first Jews came to China during the period of Zhou dynasty bases their assessment upon the folklores of the Zhou dynasty, which recalls, “Tree of Knowledge, the Rainbow After the Deluge, & Seven years of Famine” all of which are important terms in Judaism.4 To them this is a clear evidence of Jewish Influence in the Zhou Dynasty which gives them the reason to believe that they came during this period or earlier. Other scholars believe that Jews first arrived in China during the Han dynasty due to the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans.2 However, most scholars and historians believe that Jews first settled in Kaifeng during the Song Dynasty and were successful in forming a community. The majority of these scholars further argue that different dates carved on the inscription, was written because it was the time when Jews first entered China and not the city of Kaifeng.4 Jews settled in Kaifeng during the Song dynasty and the stone carving inscriptions were found in these Chinese synagogues. Thus, we can deduce that Jews came to China from several places such as India, Europe, and the Middle East at various times in the medieval period through the land and sea routes of the Silk Road.
The East and the West were linked through a route called the “Silk Road” where Jewish merchants traded precious silk, gemstones and spices. The Silk Road began in the Chinese city of Xi’an, passing through Central and Western Asia and to the Eastern Coast of Mediterranean. The commerce along the Silk Road brought the Han Dynasty into political contact with the many kingdoms of Central Asia and opened up the great East-West trade route. Sea routes between East and West were open long before the Song Dynasty came to power and a lot of merchants and tradesmen from the Persian and the Arab world used this route to come to China because it was safer, easier and quicker. They started from the Red sea or the Persian Gulf and crossed the Indian Ocean to the port cities along China’s southeastern coast. This route became known as the Sea route of Silk Road. However, most Jewish Scholars favor the theory of the overland route of the Silk Road, because it fits in with what is known about the movement of Jews throughout Central Asia, including archaeological discoveries in Afghanistan and elsewhere.2 Thus Jews came to China either by the sea or land route of the Silk Road.5
China, during the Han dynasty, was a prosperous and an open society. It had sent envoys to many countries and welcomed foreign visitors such as traders and diplomats, merchants and religious missionaries. Among them, many were Jews. Attracted by China’s rich culture, many visitors, merchants and traders decided to settle there permanently. The Chinese government tolerated the establishment of foreign religions.
The Song dynasty lasted for 300 years and western scholars are further working to find a more precise date when the first community of Jews came to Kaifeng. Other scholars argue that it is impossible to determine the exact year the Jews arrived in Kaifeng because of its precedence and lack of evidence that would have supported an exact date.
Since Kaifeng was the city in which Jewish community survived the longest in history, we will heed greater importance to the Jews that arrived in the Song Dynasty. A core group unlike other cities in China established the Jewish settlement in Kaifeng all at once. The first Jewish settlers in Kaifeng got official permission to live there permanently, and establish the Jewish way of life amongst themselves.4 Jewish sources say that these Jews entering Kaifeng came to China for the first time, from a foreign country. According to sources, the first Jewish Kaifeng settlement did not come from another Chinese city. The community kept growing due to arrival of newcomers and through birth.
Scholarly research conducted by James Finn4, British Consulate of Jerusalem, concluded that most of the Jews of China are from Persian Origin although some elements propose a more diverse background. This conclusion was based on an examination and speculation of the textual and stylistic details of the Torah scrolls from Kaifeng. The names of the earliest Jews in China were Hebrew names, almost similar to the names in Persia. The rituals and the style of prayer were considered to be Persian in origin. The translations of parts of the piyyutim, as well as the colophons at the end of the Pentateuch sections in Kaifeng, were in Persian. The liturgy done in Kaifeng Synagogues was initially done in Bokhara, a Persian dialect. The Kaifeng Jews also had some similarities with the Jews of Yemen, such as using similar stylistic devices in their scrolls.
It is said that the Kaifeng Jews upon entering China experienced prosperity and success since the Chinese emperors allowed Jews to remain in Kaifeng and allowed them to practice their own rituals and customs. Furthermore, Jews were allowed to own property and enjoy the same rights as the locals.4 however; some scholars believe that during the Song and the Tang dynasty, the Chinese government imposed special laws that controlled the relations between the Chinese and the foreigners. The superior authority prohibited action of intermarriage. Since, Jews were able to practice their own religion in China, they were able to form a strong Kehillah. In fact, the community had limited autonomy and its self-governing procedures had to be approved by the Chinese government.
The early period of Kaifeng Jews started from the time they came to China to the first half of the fourteenth century.2 Within the first period and beyond, the first Jewish synagogue was built and the community faced many ups and downs in its development. The first few decades after their arrival to China were prosperous because the economy of the city was flourishing and business was excellent, which provided many opportunities for Jewish merchants and traders who then became permanent residents. In the first half of the twelfth century, the Tartars stole power from the Song dynasty in Kaifeng and the Song dynasty were forced to move their capital somewhere else. This made the Jewish population decline in China because some of them followed the Song dynasty and others died because of famine exposed by the Tartars due to the increased price of grain. However, Jews who remained in Kaifeng did not suffer from intolerance from the Tartars. The tartars like the Song dynasty were tolerant of other religions as well and as the Kaifeng started to prosper again, so did the Jews who lived in Kaifeng at that time. Jews were given equal rights as the locals and were allowed to own properties. After the Tartars, the Yuan dynasty took power in the 13th Century. Although, this dynasty (Mongols) mistreated the Chinese, they were not unfriendly to Jews. The Mongols allowed them to practice their own faith, participate in commerce and serve in the Army.6
The first synagogue was built in Kaifeng under the power of the Tartars. This synagogue was built in 1163 and were reconstructed and expanded under the power of Tartars three times. This shows the security and the stability of Jews who lived in Kaifeng enabling it to be their home. The majority of the Jewish community always lived in the area around the synagogue. When the dynasty shifted from Tang to Yuan, Chinese traditions started to influence the Jewish lifestyle.6 Thus, the mode of life of the Jews of Kaifeng combined their Jewish heritage with elements derived from their Chinese environment. Jews even started wearing traditional Chinese clothes. Population of the Jews living in Kaifeng increased because of mainly immigration and natural growth. The principle factor governing population size in those centuries was the number of children surviving into adulthood rather than the level of birthrate.
The central life of Kaifeng Jewry was similar to that of any other Jewish life. They followed festivals on the correct dates assisted by the Jewish calendar prepared in Chinese, which had been made by Kaifeng natives themselves. All holidays were followed such as Sabbath, Yom Kippur, and more importantly, on the correct day. The Jews of Kaifeng used all the Hebrew prayer books and Torah scrolls needed to conduct services for the holidays. This case of using Hebrew prayer books indicates that their prayer services are similar to Rabbinic Judaism.3
Education in Kaifeng Jewry provided religious knowledge, and enhanced their social status in Chinese Society. It was divided into 2 types and they were rabbinical education and secular education. The Kaifeng community trained their Rabbis in Kaifeng formed institutes where young children could come and study the Torah and Holy Scriptures in Hebrew. For those who wished to be Rabbis, a more extensive education and training was provided. However, the Hebrew knowledge of the Kaifeng Jews varied overtime. Their Hebrew began to deteriorate as years passed by to the point where none could read or write in Hebrew in the 20th century. For Kaifeng Jews, secular education was learning the Chinese Classics in order to qualify for the civil service system pass the imperial examinations and rise in professional status. A lot of Kaifeng Jews went to Chinese schools instead of following the rabbinical education. This situation illustrates that Kaifeng Jews were religious and also were well adopted overall in the Chinese society. Intermarriage between Jews and the Chinese was another case showing Jews were well accepted within the Chinese system.
The Jewish household in Kaifeng was considered similar to that of the Chinese household, as females did not possess much social standing and were expected to take care of the family. They were not supposed to remarry similar to other Chinese households. The children's religion in the household was determined by the religion of the male parent. Subsequently, in most Jewish household, daily prayers and eating of the kosher meat was maintained. Even today, Jewish descendents in Kaifeng do not eat pork. In this respect according to the scholars, the Kaifeng Jewish descendents seems more authentic than Reform Jews. This view raises further questions and debates among the scholars.
The identity of the present day Jewish descendents is often questioned because their looks are native and they seem to have entered fully into the variegated pattern of Chinese life.2 The many reports on the life of Kaifeng Jews by scholars over the past 300 years have been contradictory. Some say, the Kaifeng Jews have fully integrated to the Chinese culture and other deny the idea of Chinese culture integrating into the Jewish culture at all; other stand in the middle saying that Kaifeng Jews integrated both Chinese and Jewish into their lifestyle. This is a bit confusing because China has a culture of its own and Judaism can be both a religion as well as a culture. Although Kaifeng's Jews had already completely assimilated, their descendants continued to observe several customs, like keeping kosher and keeping Shabbat. Many continue to live the old city in the old section, and the Jewish names of two of the neighborhood's streets still appear in Hebrew and English. Another sign of devotion is the existence of the stone inscription, which is the biggest work of their existence in China. The fact that prayers were done in Hebrew even though many didn't understand it is also another sign of attachment. Even if the Chinese infiltrated the life of Kaifeng Jews over the years, it will be unjustifiable to say that there is no Jewish customs remaining in their descendents. Since we don’t have much comprehension about the early Kaifeng Jews, we don’t have much knowledge about their descendents as well. In any case, it would be hard to claim the Chinese of Jewish descent in Kaifeng today as Jews.
REFERECES:
[1] Hopkirk, P. Foreign Devils on the Silk Road: The Search for the Lost Cities and Treasures of Chinese Central Asia. University of Massachusetts Press (March 1984).
[2] History of the Jews in China. URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China. Date Accessed: 21st March, 2011.
[3] Lipski, A.L. Jewish Australia Online Network. URL: http://www.hebrewsongs.com/kaifeng.htm. Date Accessed: 21st March, 2011.
[4] The History of the Kaifeng Community. Published: Jan 5th, 2004.
Date Accessed: 28th March, 2011.
[5] Cansdale, Lena. “Jews on the Silk Road.” In Silk Road Studies II: World of the Silk Roads: Ancient and Modern, 23-30. Ed. by D. Christian and C. Benjamin. Turnhout: Brepols, 1998.
[6] Yuan dynasty, for better or for worse?, Setback or progress?
Date Accessed: 29th, March, 2011
Tuesday, March 22, 2011
Mission to Asia: Missionary accounts
The narratives of Plano Carpini, William of Rubruck, John of Monte Corvino and several other missionaries are recognized in the book, “Mission to Asia” by Christopher Dawson which depicts their journeys to Mongolia in the early times. The authors were more predisposed towards the nature of political embassies {1} between them and the East, then focusing on their sole purpose. Many missionaries acknowledged in this book had different purposes to their Mission, but John of Plano Caprini’s experience will be emphasized in this paper as he had the courage to embark on the Mission of Asia.
John of Plano Caprini was sent by the Pope and the Cardinals of the time to diffuse the threat that the Mongols substantiated towards them and as a result he was instructed to examine everything. It was noted that he tends to over exaggerate details which contrasted his belief entirely. His faith in monogamy played a huge role in him having a biased judgement on the Mongolian men having many wives.
The mode he describes their religion seems very much incontrovertible. He describes their religion while being very prejudiced and contradictory. Although they believed in one God, they were able to make idols to whom they could worship to and to these they pay great honour {1}. They make offerings andsacrifces to these idols, like in any prehistoric religion. They show no mercy to anyone that steals from their cart; they are put to death without any consideration. John showed an utter criticism towards their religion which is shown in the unenthusiastic undertone in his narration.
He recorded that they had no body of law involved, which is confirmed when he states that, nothing civilized could be expected from a barbaric group. They had no law concerning the doing of right and wrong or the avoidance of sin {1}. It seems pretty satirical that there killings and committing other crimes were not forbidden in their mandate. When it comes to women they were seen as objects of no use. They were treated so low and their attitude towards them was so debasing. They were sometimes considered as sex-slaves.
Mongolian men shared great unity amongst each other and they were known for being faithful to their chiefs and emperors than any men in the world {1}. They were very simplistic rather than materialistic. Yet again, their barbaric nature was revealed with others, which affirms them to be excessively haughty. Their contradictory and egotistical nature shows that they are able to do whatever they want. The only way to peace is to surrender to their divine power. Their ignorant behaviour confirms that nothing good can be seen of this race and that they were meant to be a plague for all mankind.
Friday, March 18, 2011
Dunhuang and Mogao Ku
Mogao Ku is on the five Buddhist architectural sites in the region of Dunhuang, which is northwestern China. Around 1960 to 1970 the remains of this site were excavated and the structure and method of the construction was investigated. In the north-western China region the five most important sites include: the Moago Caves, the Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves, the Wugemiao Caves, the Western Thousand Buddha Caves and the Yulin Caves. Before reading this article, I was unaware of the Mogao Ku caves and most importantly the Dunhuang treasures found in the Dunhuang Library caves caves. Around 1900 a Taoist priest named Wang Yuanlu found the Library caves. The cave consisted of “ ancient cultural relics dating from the third to eleventh century”. “There were scrolls of religious writings, administrative documents, as well as embroidery works and paintings”. Many caves and shrines were found later on that was of great importance. This discovery had a huge impact all around the world and these scrolls came up to be known as the Dunhuang scripts. The scrolls dealt with many sections of social and natural science. After learning the significance of this site many explorers and archaeologists visited the site and ransacked many of its items, which are worth a lot in present time and rests in different corners of the world. Later on, UNESCO recognized the Mogao Ku caves as the World Cultural Heritage site.
For five generations, the family known as the Cao family held it all together. They helped finance the building of the caves for safeguarding their rule. They supported these important projects and temples at Mogao Ku. “When we talk about widespread dispersal of Buddhism and Buddhist art, we cannot forget to include their name”. It just fascinates me, how at that time people were capable of building such great masterpieces, which till today we are fortunate of and will pass it on to our future generations.
Cosmopolitan Chang’an
Nestorian simply describes the Syriac church, usually people who honored the memory of Nestorious and followed his teachings and concepts. These people entered China through the silk route from the Persian Empire. They came to China as monks and traders during the Tang dynasty and established themselves with their own skill. There is no real information on the Nestorians according to the historians except for some “mythological elements in apologetic or devotional literature” from the medieval period. These are not considered to be erudite and the few unambiguous sources of knowledge would be the eight theological treatises from the Dunhuang manuscripts collection, the stele found in Xi’an and various edicts found in Chinese records. They are considered to be authentic and are strong evidence of their presence. The Nestorians were foreigners trying to blend in with the superior culture in China. Even after facing many racial and cultural differences they tried to establish themselves without any help and was successful in spreading their culture inevitably.
In the article by Valerie, Hansen, the author describes the environment and people in the city of Chang’an. The city was born during the Tang dynasty and is located at the end of the Silk Road. The city was divided into many sections mainly because of security purpose. The city had curfews for people and the gates opened and closed at certain times. It would be really hard for a person at present to live there as the city lacked freedom for the common people. Many people at that time were fond of literature and poetry and it’s surprising that people at that time were trying to be educated. The city of Chang’an was known to be very beautiful according to Schafer’s article. It also attracted other people to tour the city due to its beautiful landscapes. Even though city had a strict outlook for its people residing in it, it attracted many people to inhabit in its land.
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