Tuesday, April 5, 2011
Jewish communities and inhabitants in Kaifeng
Jewish life in China can be drawn back to the 7th century, when Jews arrived from Persia along the Silk Road. Archaeological evidence pointing to a Jewish presence has only come to light since European explorers and archaeologists ventured to retrace the various routes used by the Silk Road merchants.1 When, it comes to investigating the Jewish communities that existed in China, Sinologists primarily look at Kaifeng. Kaifeng was mostly scrutinized as Sinologists and archaeologists wanted to know specific details about the early Jewish settlers. Although Kaifeng was not the singular region in China where Jewish settlers had lived, this paper will present more emphasis on Kaifeng as this city contained the most prevalent and lasting Jewish community in China.
Kaifeng was visited by foreigners during Ming and Qing dynasty, where they saw Chinese Jews praying in a Synagogue, and practicing their rituals and customs. The Jewish settlers had in possession the Hebrew scripture and records of their history inscribed in stone. These foreign intellectuals wrote reports about the Jewish communities in Kaifeng which aroused interest in Europe, England and the Americas, leading to the publication of many books and articles.2 Many of these scholars argue over the interpretation of facts that have been discovered. For example, when did the first Jewish community come to China? How did they come to China and why? What was life like in Kaifeng and Shanghai? What and how were their relations with the Chinese and other ethnic groups in China? Why have they vanished in China as a race and religion, and what remains of them today in both Kaifeng and Shanghai?
All of these questions have been and still are attempted to be answered by both Western Sinologist and Chinese Scholars, and both their works combined make up a valuable contribution to the understanding of the Jewish community in China. Sometimes, the Chinese interpretation of the fact was different from the Western thinkers or sometimes the information gathered by the Chinese Scholars was a source of addition to the facts or information provided by the Western Scholars of the Chinese Jews. In this short paper, differing views on when Jews first came to China, and questions such as when did they come to Kaifeng and from where, why did they come, how did the Jews function as a community and what are the remains of them today will be discussed.
Before getting into the details, it is important to note why Western Scholars have recently been interested in investigating the Jewish population in China. Not only were there living Jews in Kaifeng but they had records carved in stone containing detailed accounts of their origins, their history and their beliefs.3 European Catholics and the Jesuits hoped to find “original materials” in the Kaifeng Scriptures, and they also believed that the scriptures and carvings have been produced before the compilation of the Talmud.3 This inspired research and speculation by Western sinologist that in turn created educated theories as to when Jews came to China, where they came from, the routes they have traveled, where they settled and how they lived. Also, much of what had been written by Jews of China was fantasy and pseudo-history. Little attention has been paid to the charting the life of the Kaifeng Jewish Community from a historical stand point.2 Books and other publications written by both Western and Chinese scholars try to provide more accurate information to some questions such as the debatable issue of the first Jewish settlement in China.
The stone records were one of the underlying reasons that aroused interest in Western Sinologist to investigate the Jewish community in China and more particularly in Kaifeng. The records contain three inscriptions in the Chinese language that offers three different dates for the time of the arrival of first Jews in China. The different arrival time carved on the stone was in the Song dynasty (960-1279), the Han dynasty (206 B.C. to 220 A.D.), and the Zhou dynasty (1056 B.C. to 256 B.C.).3 Scholars who believe that the first Jews came to China during the period of Zhou dynasty bases their assessment upon the folklores of the Zhou dynasty, which recalls, “Tree of Knowledge, the Rainbow After the Deluge, & Seven years of Famine” all of which are important terms in Judaism.4 To them this is a clear evidence of Jewish Influence in the Zhou Dynasty which gives them the reason to believe that they came during this period or earlier. Other scholars believe that Jews first arrived in China during the Han dynasty due to the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans.2 However, most scholars and historians believe that Jews first settled in Kaifeng during the Song Dynasty and were successful in forming a community. The majority of these scholars further argue that different dates carved on the inscription, was written because it was the time when Jews first entered China and not the city of Kaifeng.4 Jews settled in Kaifeng during the Song dynasty and the stone carving inscriptions were found in these Chinese synagogues. Thus, we can deduce that Jews came to China from several places such as India, Europe, and the Middle East at various times in the medieval period through the land and sea routes of the Silk Road.
The East and the West were linked through a route called the “Silk Road” where Jewish merchants traded precious silk, gemstones and spices. The Silk Road began in the Chinese city of Xi’an, passing through Central and Western Asia and to the Eastern Coast of Mediterranean. The commerce along the Silk Road brought the Han Dynasty into political contact with the many kingdoms of Central Asia and opened up the great East-West trade route. Sea routes between East and West were open long before the Song Dynasty came to power and a lot of merchants and tradesmen from the Persian and the Arab world used this route to come to China because it was safer, easier and quicker. They started from the Red sea or the Persian Gulf and crossed the Indian Ocean to the port cities along China’s southeastern coast. This route became known as the Sea route of Silk Road. However, most Jewish Scholars favor the theory of the overland route of the Silk Road, because it fits in with what is known about the movement of Jews throughout Central Asia, including archaeological discoveries in Afghanistan and elsewhere.2 Thus Jews came to China either by the sea or land route of the Silk Road.5
China, during the Han dynasty, was a prosperous and an open society. It had sent envoys to many countries and welcomed foreign visitors such as traders and diplomats, merchants and religious missionaries. Among them, many were Jews. Attracted by China’s rich culture, many visitors, merchants and traders decided to settle there permanently. The Chinese government tolerated the establishment of foreign religions.
The Song dynasty lasted for 300 years and western scholars are further working to find a more precise date when the first community of Jews came to Kaifeng. Other scholars argue that it is impossible to determine the exact year the Jews arrived in Kaifeng because of its precedence and lack of evidence that would have supported an exact date.
Since Kaifeng was the city in which Jewish community survived the longest in history, we will heed greater importance to the Jews that arrived in the Song Dynasty. A core group unlike other cities in China established the Jewish settlement in Kaifeng all at once. The first Jewish settlers in Kaifeng got official permission to live there permanently, and establish the Jewish way of life amongst themselves.4 Jewish sources say that these Jews entering Kaifeng came to China for the first time, from a foreign country. According to sources, the first Jewish Kaifeng settlement did not come from another Chinese city. The community kept growing due to arrival of newcomers and through birth.
Scholarly research conducted by James Finn4, British Consulate of Jerusalem, concluded that most of the Jews of China are from Persian Origin although some elements propose a more diverse background. This conclusion was based on an examination and speculation of the textual and stylistic details of the Torah scrolls from Kaifeng. The names of the earliest Jews in China were Hebrew names, almost similar to the names in Persia. The rituals and the style of prayer were considered to be Persian in origin. The translations of parts of the piyyutim, as well as the colophons at the end of the Pentateuch sections in Kaifeng, were in Persian. The liturgy done in Kaifeng Synagogues was initially done in Bokhara, a Persian dialect. The Kaifeng Jews also had some similarities with the Jews of Yemen, such as using similar stylistic devices in their scrolls.
It is said that the Kaifeng Jews upon entering China experienced prosperity and success since the Chinese emperors allowed Jews to remain in Kaifeng and allowed them to practice their own rituals and customs. Furthermore, Jews were allowed to own property and enjoy the same rights as the locals.4 however; some scholars believe that during the Song and the Tang dynasty, the Chinese government imposed special laws that controlled the relations between the Chinese and the foreigners. The superior authority prohibited action of intermarriage. Since, Jews were able to practice their own religion in China, they were able to form a strong Kehillah. In fact, the community had limited autonomy and its self-governing procedures had to be approved by the Chinese government.
The early period of Kaifeng Jews started from the time they came to China to the first half of the fourteenth century.2 Within the first period and beyond, the first Jewish synagogue was built and the community faced many ups and downs in its development. The first few decades after their arrival to China were prosperous because the economy of the city was flourishing and business was excellent, which provided many opportunities for Jewish merchants and traders who then became permanent residents. In the first half of the twelfth century, the Tartars stole power from the Song dynasty in Kaifeng and the Song dynasty were forced to move their capital somewhere else. This made the Jewish population decline in China because some of them followed the Song dynasty and others died because of famine exposed by the Tartars due to the increased price of grain. However, Jews who remained in Kaifeng did not suffer from intolerance from the Tartars. The tartars like the Song dynasty were tolerant of other religions as well and as the Kaifeng started to prosper again, so did the Jews who lived in Kaifeng at that time. Jews were given equal rights as the locals and were allowed to own properties. After the Tartars, the Yuan dynasty took power in the 13th Century. Although, this dynasty (Mongols) mistreated the Chinese, they were not unfriendly to Jews. The Mongols allowed them to practice their own faith, participate in commerce and serve in the Army.6
The first synagogue was built in Kaifeng under the power of the Tartars. This synagogue was built in 1163 and were reconstructed and expanded under the power of Tartars three times. This shows the security and the stability of Jews who lived in Kaifeng enabling it to be their home. The majority of the Jewish community always lived in the area around the synagogue. When the dynasty shifted from Tang to Yuan, Chinese traditions started to influence the Jewish lifestyle.6 Thus, the mode of life of the Jews of Kaifeng combined their Jewish heritage with elements derived from their Chinese environment. Jews even started wearing traditional Chinese clothes. Population of the Jews living in Kaifeng increased because of mainly immigration and natural growth. The principle factor governing population size in those centuries was the number of children surviving into adulthood rather than the level of birthrate.
The central life of Kaifeng Jewry was similar to that of any other Jewish life. They followed festivals on the correct dates assisted by the Jewish calendar prepared in Chinese, which had been made by Kaifeng natives themselves. All holidays were followed such as Sabbath, Yom Kippur, and more importantly, on the correct day. The Jews of Kaifeng used all the Hebrew prayer books and Torah scrolls needed to conduct services for the holidays. This case of using Hebrew prayer books indicates that their prayer services are similar to Rabbinic Judaism.3
Education in Kaifeng Jewry provided religious knowledge, and enhanced their social status in Chinese Society. It was divided into 2 types and they were rabbinical education and secular education. The Kaifeng community trained their Rabbis in Kaifeng formed institutes where young children could come and study the Torah and Holy Scriptures in Hebrew. For those who wished to be Rabbis, a more extensive education and training was provided. However, the Hebrew knowledge of the Kaifeng Jews varied overtime. Their Hebrew began to deteriorate as years passed by to the point where none could read or write in Hebrew in the 20th century. For Kaifeng Jews, secular education was learning the Chinese Classics in order to qualify for the civil service system pass the imperial examinations and rise in professional status. A lot of Kaifeng Jews went to Chinese schools instead of following the rabbinical education. This situation illustrates that Kaifeng Jews were religious and also were well adopted overall in the Chinese society. Intermarriage between Jews and the Chinese was another case showing Jews were well accepted within the Chinese system.
The Jewish household in Kaifeng was considered similar to that of the Chinese household, as females did not possess much social standing and were expected to take care of the family. They were not supposed to remarry similar to other Chinese households. The children's religion in the household was determined by the religion of the male parent. Subsequently, in most Jewish household, daily prayers and eating of the kosher meat was maintained. Even today, Jewish descendents in Kaifeng do not eat pork. In this respect according to the scholars, the Kaifeng Jewish descendents seems more authentic than Reform Jews. This view raises further questions and debates among the scholars.
The identity of the present day Jewish descendents is often questioned because their looks are native and they seem to have entered fully into the variegated pattern of Chinese life.2 The many reports on the life of Kaifeng Jews by scholars over the past 300 years have been contradictory. Some say, the Kaifeng Jews have fully integrated to the Chinese culture and other deny the idea of Chinese culture integrating into the Jewish culture at all; other stand in the middle saying that Kaifeng Jews integrated both Chinese and Jewish into their lifestyle. This is a bit confusing because China has a culture of its own and Judaism can be both a religion as well as a culture. Although Kaifeng's Jews had already completely assimilated, their descendants continued to observe several customs, like keeping kosher and keeping Shabbat. Many continue to live the old city in the old section, and the Jewish names of two of the neighborhood's streets still appear in Hebrew and English. Another sign of devotion is the existence of the stone inscription, which is the biggest work of their existence in China. The fact that prayers were done in Hebrew even though many didn't understand it is also another sign of attachment. Even if the Chinese infiltrated the life of Kaifeng Jews over the years, it will be unjustifiable to say that there is no Jewish customs remaining in their descendents. Since we don’t have much comprehension about the early Kaifeng Jews, we don’t have much knowledge about their descendents as well. In any case, it would be hard to claim the Chinese of Jewish descent in Kaifeng today as Jews.
REFERECES:
[1] Hopkirk, P. Foreign Devils on the Silk Road: The Search for the Lost Cities and Treasures of Chinese Central Asia. University of Massachusetts Press (March 1984).
[2] History of the Jews in China. URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China. Date Accessed: 21st March, 2011.
[3] Lipski, A.L. Jewish Australia Online Network. URL: http://www.hebrewsongs.com/kaifeng.htm. Date Accessed: 21st March, 2011.
[4] The History of the Kaifeng Community. Published: Jan 5th, 2004.
Date Accessed: 28th March, 2011.
[5] Cansdale, Lena. “Jews on the Silk Road.” In Silk Road Studies II: World of the Silk Roads: Ancient and Modern, 23-30. Ed. by D. Christian and C. Benjamin. Turnhout: Brepols, 1998.
[6] Yuan dynasty, for better or for worse?, Setback or progress?
Date Accessed: 29th, March, 2011
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