Islam in contemporary Central Asia and Afghanistan

 Islam is considered to be one the most influential religion at present. It was born around the seventh century and after the death of Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) spread all around Asia. Gunn’s article on “Shaping Islamic Identity” shows, how Islam has gone through many stages of decline and how it rose to power. “A vast majority of central Asians consider Islam to be part of their social identity”. But due to rise of Soviet power it destroyed many Islamic learning institutions, leaving many people unaware of Islamic teachings. They converted many of the Islamic institutions to museums and factories, which lead Islam to seek existence. Although the Soviet Union almost wiped out Islamic learning and knowledge, it did not eliminate the population’s self-perception as having an Islamic identity. There are many factors that helped shape Islam including the “Hanafi school of Sunni Islam, Sufism, Shi’sm and other islamist movements”. The conflicts in central Asia are not conflict between civilizations but conflicts with in. “The most salient conflict has been between Islamist and the states that have attempted to suppress them”. Through time everything came back to normal and many institutions that were converted during the reign of Soviet Union were restored back to its original state.

            Hirschkind on his article follows the Feminist Majority's Campaign against the abuse of Afghan women. It shows how badly these women are treated. They forbade women from all kinds of institutions including schools, colleges and any governmental establishments. Many of them were even forced to wear “burqa”, which is covering from head to toe. Freedom was taken away from them and they had no other options available. Their main concern is not just rescuing the women in Afghanistan but to “address the larger set of assumptions and attitudes undergirding this campaign and that are reflected widely in American public opinion: attitudes about the proper place of public religious morality in modern Islamic societies, and in particular how such morality is seen to shape and constrain women’s behavior”. We need to think about Muslim women outside the simple opposition. We should all help them break free from the constraints of political superiors and aid them to find their true self.

Bamiyan Buddha

                                           BEFORE                        AFTER

UNESCO,UN and Afghan cultural heritage

Ellis Cashmore’s article in the Encyclopedia of race and ethnic studies is basically about the history of the two most influential institutions. One of them is known as The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the other is United Nations (UN). The both came in role after the Second World War. UNESCO was established around 1946 in Paris and their general task was “to study and collect scientific materials concerning questions of race; to give wide diffusion to the scientific information collected; to prepare an educational campaign based on this information.” UN was set up around 1945, in succession to the League of Nations and they encourage world peace under the Charter in article 55, which says Un will promote “universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without discrimination as to race, sex, language, or religion.” They are both providing support for those in need of them.

On Christian Manhart’s article it tells us how UNESCO is taking every possible route in saving endangered cultural heritages in Afghanistan. They are looking at all aspects to preserve and rebuild cultural sites, with the support of other Great Nations. UNESCO is trying its best to build a link between people and their culture identity. They are helping them be responsible and take ownership of their remains, which represents their cultural inheritance. A citation from UN secretary-General’s dictum, “our challenge is to help the Afghans help themselves”. They are trying to make the Afghans understand how valuable their cultural history is and showing them how to preserve them for future generations. At Bamiyan in 2001, UNESCO sent a mission in restoring the remains of the site, but later concluded that around 80% were missing or looted. They have taken actions in safeguarding the remains. They have been continuously funded by many Great Nations, which helps them help the Afghans train and raise awareness of their culture.

The article by Francesco Francioni and Federico Lenzerini is about the deliberate destruction of cultural heritage, which constitutes a violation of International Law. For example the destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas violate international law even though it was under the Taliban authority, as it took away the pride and cultural identity of al the Afghans. Therefore many actions can wipe out culture and identity of a race and it usually happens after the country has experienced war. As a result many cultural items can be misplaced and lost and an entire civilization can be mislaid.

Buddhism

To end suffering and to reach Nirvana is the main goal of Buddhist people. When learning about Buddhism, the information is usually cornered to India itself, but the reading had a clear understanding overall. Buddhism is inevitable unfolding of a distinct and self-identical entity and more a dynamic process of borrowing, conflict, and interaction between and within traditions. The Buddha has preached over forty years to many different audiences and there was a concern that those teachings might not be remembered in the future.

The two major branches of Buddhism are recognized as the Theravada ("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle"). Theravada, the oldest surviving, has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, whilst Mahayana, which is found throughout East Asia. A third branch later on came to be known as, Vajrayani, which is often classified as the modernization of Buddhism.

Like other religion they too wanted to receive eternal freedom by reaching The Nirvana through the eight steps of Enlightenment, so they can get rid of their narrow minds and be free from all sins. Thus, the teaching of Buddha is of a single flavor but benefits begin in a variety of ways according to their capacity. The Buddha knows the abilities and dispositions of his disciples and causes them to hear his dharma in a way most suitable to them.

Iranian Traditions and Zoroastrianism

Iranian traditions are based upon the investigation of the pre- literary history of the Iranians using comparative philology as a method of determination. Since the primary language is yet identified, Frye deduces that the best means of discovering its origin would be to start from the Indo-European language, as this approach will give “the most adequate explanation of the divergences found in all of the language of the family”. The central idea is basically to acknowledge the unity of language supposedly brought a unity of social and religious beliefs.

The study of Indo- European religions had developed partly as a result of Dumezil’s theories which Frye reveals to be a mixture of belief and scepticism among today’s scholars. The next revelation lead him tot the Aryans as he was able to postulate an Indo-Iranian unity from related vocabulary, grammar, religious and social concepts from a common origin. Frye managed to show parallel concepts between the Iranians and tribal singers into one unified epic composed the Indians without any discernible chronology as various stories of different dates. These concepts of Indo-European existence proved to be very controversial as it was all relative to other distant classifications and divergences.

Zoroastrianism has a long oral tradition. Its prophet Zarathustra lived before the Iranians knew how to read or write. The Avesta, their collection of Holy texts, was set down in a particular invented alphabet around the fourth and fifth centuries. There was no real historical data or scriptures on Zoroaster’s arrival and most about him is known from the Gathas which are the attributions of the prophet himself.

Zoroastrians believed that the world was created in 7 stages. The major deities are organized into a Trinity, the three great ethical beings, similar to the Christian religion - Ahura Mazda or "Wisdom", Ahura Mithra or "Covenant", and Ahura Varuna or "Oath". Zoroastrians has a bit similarity with Christianity and Islam in my point of view, as it has the same understanding of one God and the belief of eternal life after death. Much of the texts speak about the struggles one has to make to remain good and pure. Even though some people might think Zoroastrianism as monotheistic way but many scholars today points out its lack of information.

Sogdians

The first article, “The Merchant Empire of Sogdians”, focuses more on the trading routes and forms of exchange between the Sogdians and other people. Chinese Stories describes the Sogdians as born to their trade. Their language Aramaic was mostly used all around the silk route. They were partly responsible for the widespread of religions, such as, Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism eastwards along the silk route. Their trading activities were acknowledged through the “Ancient Letters” found by Stein near the beacon at the end of the Great Wall. The other two articles focused more on their activities in Northwest China and Sogdiana. Many hierarchy levels of classes were seen. They excelled in trade because they could assimilate with neighboring people easily due to their friendly characteristics and high-ranking positions. They barely fought any wars due to, their unique military strategy, which helped them to focus on trade and welfare. For example, merchant was known to be the highest level as the Sogdians prioritized trade over anything. Many Archaeologists said that the sixth century was when Sogadian culture at its highest peak, evidence received through the vast artistic objects, such as, paintings, sculptures, glasswork and many more.

They were not just considered merchants but art enthusiast. Their diffusion of art was evident as it influenced the art of other cultures. It was seen all around central Asia. Another thing that caught my eye was the burification process, which was the same as the Egyptians.


Brief idea of the two main religions at that time was, Zoroastrianism is a blend of Buddhism and Hinduism. It’s dualistic by nature and accepts Ahura Mazda as the sole God to worship and has theme of light versus dark. This religion has spread all the way to India and is still practiced in many countries. On the other hand, Manichaeism is a mix of Christianity and Buddhism. Manichaeism views the world as the struggle of good versus evil. The success of Sogadian culture through its vast trading of goods is well known all around. Its impressive architectural ideas, sculptures and paintings were found in many influential places. Their cultural eloquent and innovative minds lead to many vast advances, which are used till today.

Chinese Diplomatic Missions to Middle India in the Seventh Century.

China and India shared great history together, even though it did not get enough attention from people. But, close investigation proved that they shared diplomatic channels maintained by sundry groups of people with various intentions. Many tributary missions from China to Indian were recorded, which strengthen their relations and helped maintain their diplomatic ties. This also, helped “understand the significant contributions of individuals to pre-modern Sino-Indian relationship”. There were four significant Tang embassies dispatched between 641 and 658. This reading focused more on the underlying motives of sending Tang diplomats, which unveiled emperor Taizong’s own personal interest in Indian logetivity doctors and provided better viewpoint on Xuanzang’s pilgrimage to South Asia. It also, helped understand the role of Buddhism in bridging the geographical gaps.

Four individuals that helped strengthen the ties of the channel were Taizong, Xuanzang, Wang Xuance and the Indian King Harsha. All of them had eventful moments. Xuanzang was a famous Buddhist pilgrim, who helped initiate contact between the Tang court and the kingdom of Kanauj. Many famous leaders saw Xuanzang at that time. He also persuaded King Harsha of India to open diplomatic channels to China. The next influential person was Emperor Taizong, “his interest in logetivity drugs and doctors as possible reason of sustaining official intercourse between China and India”. He was made aware that many of his people were dying from health problems and he too was suffering from many problems. Wang Xuance acted as the official Chinese ambassador to India. The transmission of Buddhism was seen through many years between the two countries.

Therefore, this showed many individuals motives for diplomatic ties with India. Many of them were personal gains and others were rather political or military based. There interactions strengthened the history of their intentions.